1. Michael Schneider and Franzis Preckel, “Variables Associated with Achievement in Higher Education: A Systematic Review of Meta-Analyses,” Psychological Bulletin 143 (2017): 565–600.

2. Lee J. Cronbach and Richard E. Snow, “Aptitudes and Instructional Methods: A Handbook for Research on Interactions” (New York: Irvington, 1977).

3. Richard J. Riding, “Cognitive Styles Analysis” (Birmingham, UK: Learning and Training Technology, 1991).

4. John R. Kirby, Phillip J. Moore, and Neville J. Schofield, “Verbal and Visual Learning Styles,” Contemporary Educational Psychology 13 (1988): 169–184.

5. Steven E. Poltrock and Polly Brown, “Individual Differences in Visual Imagery and Spatial Ability,” Intelligence 8 (1984): 93–138.

6. Peter E. Keller and Mirjam Appel, “Individual Differences, Auditory Imagery, and the Coordination of Body Movements and Sounds in Musical Ensembles,” Music Perception 28 (2010): 27–46.

7. Howard Gardner, “ ‘Multiple Intelligences’ Are Not ‘Learning Styles,’ ” Answer Sheet (blog), Washington Post, October 16, 2013, www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-sheet/wp/2013/10/16/howard-gardner-mu….

8. Judith A. Arter and Joseph R. Jenkins, “Differential Diagnosis—Prescriptive Teaching: A Critical Appraisal,” Review of Educational Research 49 (1979): 517–555; and Thomas J. Kampwirth and Marion Bates, “Modality Preference and Teaching Method: A Review of the Research,” Academic Therapy 15 (1980): 597–605.

9. Frank Coffield et al., Should We Be Using Learning Styles? What Research Has to Say to Practice (London: Learning and Skills Research Centre, 2004); Kenneth A. Kavale and Steven R. Forness, “Substance over Style: Assessing the Efficacy of Modality Testing and Teaching,” Exceptional Children 54 (1987): 228–239; and Vicki E. Snider, “Learning Styles and Learning to Read: A Critique,” Remedial and Special Education 13, no. 1 (1992): 6–18.

10. Harold Pashler et al., “Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence,” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 9, no. 3 (2008): 105–119.

11. Joshua Cuevas, “Is Learning Styles-Based Instruction Effective? A Comprehensive Analysis of Recent Research on Learning Styles,” Theory and Research in Education 13 (2015): 308–333.

12. Sheng-Wen Hsieh et al., “Effects of Teaching and Learning Styles on Students’ Reflection Levels for Ubiquitous Learning,” Computers & Education 57 (2011): 1194–1201.
13. Yen-Chu Hung, “The Effect of Teaching Methods and Learning Style on Learning Program Design in Web-Based Education Systems,” Journal of Educational Computing Research 47 (2012): 409–427.

14. See Robert J. Sternberg, “Mental Self-Government: A Theory of Intellectual Styles and Their Development,” Human Development 31 (1988): 197–224.
15. Nian-Shing Chen et al., “Effects of Matching Teaching Strategy to Thinking Style on Learner’s Quality of Reflection in an Online Learning Environment,” Computers & Education 56 (2011): 53–64.

16. See, for example, Sarah J. Allcock and Julie A. Hulme, “Learning Styles in the Classroom: Educational Benefit or Planning Exercise?,” Psychology Teaching Review 16, no. 2 (2010): 67–79; and Michael D. Sankey, Dawn Birch, and Michael W. Gardiner, “The Impact of Multiple Representations of Content Using Multimedia on Learning Outcomes across Learning Styles and Modal Preferences,” International Journal of Education and Development Using Information and Communication Technology 7, no. 3 (2011): 18–35.

17. Joshua Cuevas and Bryan L. Dawson, “A Test of Two Alternative Cognitive Processing Models: Learning Styles and Dual Coding,” Theory and Research in Education 16 (2018): 44–64.

18. See Neil D. Fleming, Teaching and Learning Styles: VARK Strategies (Christchurch, New Zealand: N. D. Fleming, 2001).

19. David J. M. Kraemer, Lauren M. Rosenberg, and Sharon L. Thompson-Schill, “The Neural Correlates of Visual and Verbal Cognitive Styles,” Journal of Neuroscience 29 (2009): 3792–3798.

20. Laura J. Massa and Richard E. Mayer, “Testing the ATI Hypothesis: Should Multimedia Instruction Accommodate Verbalizer-Visualizer Cognitive Style?,” Learning and Individual Differences 16 (2006): 321–335.

21. Tim M. Höffler, Marta Koć-Januchta, and Detlev Leutner, “More Evidence for Three Types of Cognitive Style: Validating the Object-Spatial Imagery and Verbal Questionnaire Using Eye Tracking when Learning with Texts and Pictures,” Applied Cognitive Psychology 31 (2017): 109–115; and Marta Koć-Januchta et al., “Visualizers versus Verbalizers: Effects of Cognitive Style on Learning with Texts and Pictures: An Eye-Tracking Study,” Computers in Human Behavior 68 (2017): 170–179.

22. Lamine Mahdjoubi and Richard Akplotsyi, “The Impact of Sensory Learning Modalities on Children’s Sensitivity to Sensory Cues in the Perception of Their School Environment,” Journal of Environmental Psychology 32 (2012): 208–215.

23. Jonathan St. B. T. Evans, “Dual-Processing Accounts of Reasoning, Judgment, and Social Cognition,” Annual Review of Psychology 59 (2008): 255–278.

24. Anthony D. G. Marks et al., “Assessing Individual Differences in Adolescents’ Preference for Rational and Experiential Cognition,” Personality and Individual Differences 44 (2008): 42–52.

25. Wendy J. Phillips et al., “Thinking Styles and Decision Making: A Meta-Analysis,” Psychological Bulletin 142 (2016): 260–290.

26. David J. M. Kraemer et al., “Verbalizing, Visualizing, and Navigating: The Effect of Strategies on Encoding a Large-Scale Virtual Environment,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 43 (2017): 611–621.

27. Cuevas and Dawson, “Test of Two Alternative Cognitive Processing Models.”

28. Abby R. Knoll et al., “Learning Style, Judgements of Learning, and Learning of Verbal and Visual Information,” British Journal of Psychology 108 (2017): 544–563.

29. Peter C. Brown, Henry L. Roediger III, and Mark A. McDaniel, Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2014).

30. Danielle S. McNamara, Reading Comprehension Strategies: Theories, Interventions, and Technologies (New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2007).

31. Sian L. Beilock and Daniel T. Willingham, “Math Anxiety: Can Teachers Help Students Reduce It?,” American Educator 38, no. 2 (Summer 2014): 28–32, 43.

32. Angela L. Duckworth, Tamar Szabó Gendler, and James J. Gross, “Situational Strategies for Self-Control,” Perspectives on Psychological Science 11 (2016): 35–55.